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Socio-Religious Reforms & Press

The nineteenth century saw a wave of socio-religious reform movements that attacked social evils like Sati, caste rigidity and the neglect of women, while reviving pride in India's heritage. At the same time, a fast-growing press in Bengali, Hindi, Marathi, Urdu and English gave reformers and nationalists a powerful voice. These notes cover the great reform organisations and their founders, the landmark social reforms, and the most important newspapers of British India — a very high-yield SSC topic.

📰 14 topics🎯 101+ points📝 self-test
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Topic 01

Introduction — The Indian Renaissance

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The reform era is often called the Indian Renaissance, a re-awakening of Indian society against superstition, social evils and colonial neglect.

⭐
Key Point
The socio-religious reform movements aimed to remove social evils (Sati, child marriage, caste, untouchability) and revive rational, ethical religion.
  • They were driven by Western education, the printing press and contact with liberal ideas.
  • Reformers worked on two fronts — social reform (status of women, caste) and religious reform (removing rituals, idolatry, priestly control).
  • The press and the reform movements grew side by side — many reformers were also newspaper founders (e.g. Raja Ram Mohan Roy).
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The nineteenth-century reform era in India is often called the?

  1. Indian Renaissance
  2. Home Rule Era
  3. Swadeshi Era
  4. Gandhian Era
✔ A. Indian Renaissance — The reform era is often called the Indian Renaissance, a re-awakening against superstition and social evils.

The socio-religious reform movements were driven mainly by Western education, liberal ideas and the?

  1. Railway network
  2. Printing press
  3. Doctrine of Lapse
  4. Salt monopoly
✔ B. Printing press — They were driven by Western education, the printing press and contact with liberal ideas.

The socio-religious reform movements aimed to remove social evils and revive rational, ethical .

✔ religion

The press and the reform movements grew by side, with many reformers also founding newspapers.

✔ side
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Topic 02

Brahmo Samaj — Raja Ram Mohan Roy

The very first major reform organisation, the Brahmo Samaj launched the modern reform era in Bengal.

⭐
Key Point
Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828== at Calcutta.
  • Ram Mohan Roy is called the "Father of the Indian Renaissance" / "Father of Modern India".
  • He campaigned strongly against Sati, which led to its abolition in 1829 by Lord William Bentinck.
  • He preached monotheism (one God), opposed idol worship, caste and superstition.
  • He founded newspapers Sambad Kaumudi (Bengali) and Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Persian).
  • After his death, Debendranath Tagore and later Keshab Chandra Sen carried the movement forward.
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The Brahmo Samaj was founded in 1828 by?

  1. Swami Dayananda Saraswati
  2. Debendranath Tagore
  3. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
  4. Keshab Chandra Sen
✔ C. Raja Ram Mohan Roy — The Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828 at Calcutta.

The abolition of Sati in 1829, pushed by Ram Mohan Roy, was carried out by?

  1. Lord William Bentinck
  2. Lord Lytton
  3. Lord Ripon
  4. Lord Linlithgow
✔ A. Lord William Bentinck — Sati was abolished in 1829 by Lord William Bentinck, pushed by Ram Mohan Roy.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy is called the Father of the Indian .

✔ Renaissance

Ram Mohan Roy founded the Bengali newspaper Sambad Kaumudi and the Persian journal .

✔ Mirat-ul-Akhbar
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Topic 03

Arya Samaj — Swami Dayananda Saraswati

The Arya Samaj called for a return to the purity of the Vedas and became a strong force in North India.

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Key Point
Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875== at Bombay.
  • Its famous slogan was "Back to the Vedas".
  • Dayananda wrote the book Satyarth Prakash (The Light of Truth).
  • It opposed idol worship, caste rigidity, child marriage and untouchability, and supported widow remarriage and women's education.
  • It started the Shuddhi movement to bring converts back into Hinduism.
  • It set up the D.A.V. (Dayanand Anglo-Vedic) schools to spread education.
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The Arya Samaj was founded in 1875 at Bombay by?

  1. Swami Vivekananda
  2. Swami Dayananda Saraswati
  3. Jyotiba Phule
  4. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
✔ B. Swami Dayananda Saraswati — The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 at Bombay.

The famous slogan of the Arya Samaj was?

  1. Back to the Vedas
  2. Do or Die
  3. Service to man is service to God
  4. Dilli Chalo
✔ A. Back to the Vedas — The Arya Samaj's famous slogan was 'Back to the Vedas'.

Dayananda Saraswati wrote the book Satyarth Prakash, meaning The Light of .

✔ Truth

The Arya Samaj set up the D.A.V. schools, where D.A.V. stands for Dayanand Anglo-.

✔ Vedic
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Topic 04

Ramakrishna Mission — Swami Vivekananda

Inspired by his guru Ramakrishna Paramahansa, Vivekananda built a movement that combined spirituality with social service.

⭐
Key Point
Ramakrishna Mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897==, in memory of his guru Ramakrishna Paramahansa.
  • Vivekananda delivered his famous address at the Parliament of Religions, Chicago, in 1893 ("Sisters and Brothers of America").
  • He preached Vedanta, service to humanity ("Service to man is service to God") and self-confidence among the youth.
  • The Mission focused on education, healthcare and relief work alongside spiritual teaching.
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The Ramakrishna Mission was founded in 1897 by?

  1. Ramakrishna Paramahansa
  2. Swami Vivekananda
  3. Keshab Chandra Sen
  4. Debendranath Tagore
✔ B. Swami Vivekananda — The Ramakrishna Mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897 in memory of his guru.

Swami Vivekananda delivered his famous 'Sisters and Brothers of America' address in 1893 at the?

  1. Round Table Conference
  2. Parliament of Religions, Chicago
  3. Simla Conference
  4. Haripura Session
✔ B. Parliament of Religions, Chicago — Vivekananda delivered his famous address at the Parliament of Religions, Chicago, in 1893.

The Ramakrishna Mission was founded in memory of Vivekananda's guru, Ramakrishna .

✔ Paramahansa

Vivekananda preached Vedanta and the ideal that service to man is service to .

✔ God
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Topic 05

Other Major Reform Movements

Several other organisations and leaders reformed religion and society across different regions of India.

Organisation / MovementFounderYearAim / Known for
Brahmo SamajRaja Ram Mohan Roy1828Against Sati; monotheism; "Father of Indian Renaissance"
Arya SamajSwami Dayananda Saraswati1875"Back to the Vedas"; *Satyarth Prakash*; D.A.V. schools
Ramakrishna MissionSwami Vivekananda1897Vedanta; service to humanity; Chicago 1893
Prarthana SamajAtmaram Pandurang (& M.G. Ranade)1867Social reform in Maharashtra; widow remarriage
Aligarh MovementSir Syed Ahmad Khan1875Modern education for Muslims; M.A.O. College, Aligarh
Theosophical SocietyMadame Blavatsky & Col. Olcott (later Annie Besant)1875Revival of ancient Indian religion & philosophy
Satyashodhak SamajJyotiba Phule1873Against caste; education for lower castes & women
Self-Respect MovementE.V. Ramasamy (Periyar)1925Against caste & Brahmin dominance in South India
Young Bengal MovementHenry Vivian Derozio1820sRadical rationalism among Calcutta youth
Aligarh *(see above)*Sir Syed Ahmad Khan—Loyalty + Western education for Muslims
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The Satyashodhak Samaj (1873), working against caste and for education of lower castes, was founded by?

  1. E.V. Ramasamy (Periyar)
  2. Jyotiba Phule
  3. Atmaram Pandurang
  4. Henry Derozio
✔ B. Jyotiba Phule — The Satyashodhak Samaj was founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873.

The Aligarh Movement, promoting modern education for Muslims, was led by?

  1. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
  2. Madame Blavatsky
  3. M.G. Ranade
  4. Annie Besant
✔ A. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan — The Aligarh Movement was led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who founded M.A.O. College, Aligarh.

The Self-Respect Movement (1925) against caste and Brahmin dominance in South India was led by E.V. Ramasamy, known as .

✔ Periyar

The Young Bengal Movement of radical rationalists in Calcutta was led by Henry Vivian .

✔ Derozio
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Topic 06

Landmark Social Reforms & Legislation

The reformers' campaigns produced a series of landmark laws against social evils — favourite exam dates.

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Key Point
Abolition of Sati in 1829 by Lord William Bentinck (pushed by Ram Mohan Roy).
  • Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856 — championed by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
  • Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was the great crusader for widow remarriage and women's education.
  • Age of Consent Act, 1891 — raised the minimum age of marriage for girls.
  • Sharda Act (Child Marriage Restraint Act), 1929 — fixed minimum marriage age (girls 14, boys 18).
  • Reformers strongly promoted women's education, abolition of child marriage and end of untouchability.
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 was championed by?

  1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
  2. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
  3. Swami Dayananda Saraswati
  4. Jyotiba Phule
✔ B. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar — The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, was championed by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.

The Sharda Act (Child Marriage Restraint Act) that fixed minimum marriage age was passed in?

  1. 1891
  2. 1929
  3. 1856
  4. 1829
✔ B. 1929 — The Sharda Act (Child Marriage Restraint Act) was passed in 1929.

Sati was abolished in by Lord William Bentinck.

✔ 1829

The Age of Consent Act of 1891 raised the minimum age of for girls.

✔ marriage
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Topic 07

The Press in British India — Birth of Indian Journalism

The newspaper press began in the late 18th century and quickly became the voice of the people and a tool of the freedom struggle.

⭐
Key Point
The first newspaper in India was Bengal Gazette, started by James Augustus Hickey in 1780==== (also called *Hickey's Gazette* / *Calcutta General Advertiser*).
  • Early English papers followed — Madras Courier (1784) and Bombay Herald (1789).
  • Samachar Darpan (1818, by Marshman) was an early Indian-language (Bengali) newspaper.
  • The press spread political awareness, social reform and nationalism among Indians.
  • Many reformers were also editors — Ram Mohan Roy, Vidyasagar, Tilak, Gandhi all ran newspapers.
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The first newspaper in India, the Bengal Gazette (1780), was started by?

  1. Marshman
  2. James Augustus Hickey
  3. James Silk Buckingham
  4. Jugal Kishore Shukla
✔ B. James Augustus Hickey — The first newspaper in India was the Bengal Gazette, started by James Augustus Hickey in 1780.

The early Indian-language (Bengali) newspaper Samachar Darpan (1818) was published by?

  1. Marshman
  2. Fardoonjee Marzban
  3. Harishchandra Mukherjee
  4. Ishwar Chandra Gupta
✔ A. Marshman — Samachar Darpan (1818) was an early Bengali newspaper by Marshman.

The Bengal Gazette was also called Hickey's Gazette or the Calcutta General .

✔ Advertiser

The first newspaper in India appeared in the year .

✔ 1780
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Topic 08

Important Newspapers — Early Period (1780–1860)

The first wave of papers ranged from colonial English journals to the pioneering Indian-language press.

Newspaper / JournalFounder / EditorYearNote
Bengal GazetteJames Augustus Hickey1780India's first newspaper
Madras Courier—1784Early Madras English paper
Bombay Herald—1789Early Bombay English paper
Samachar DarpanMarshman1818Early Bengali (Indian-language) paper
Calcutta JournalJames Silk Buckingham—Liberal English journal
Sambad KaumudiRaja Ram Mohan Roy1821Bengali; against Sati
Bombay SamacharFardoonjee Marzban1822Oldest surviving Indian newspaper (Gujarati)
Mirat-ul-AkhbarRaja Ram Mohan Roy1822Persian-language journal
Udant MartandJugal Kishore Shukla1826First Hindi newspaper
Sambad PrabhakarIshwar Chandra Gupta1830Bengali
Jam-e-JamshedP.M. Motiwala1831Gujarati
Bombay TimesBennet, Colloman & Co.1838Later became *The Times of India*
Hindu PatriotHarishchandra Mukherjee1853Voiced indigo cultivators' cause
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

Which newspaper is described as India's first newspaper?

  1. Samachar Darpan
  2. Bombay Samachar
  3. Bengal Gazette
  4. Udant Martand
✔ C. Bengal Gazette — The Bengal Gazette (1780) by Hickey was India's first newspaper.

The first Hindi newspaper, Udant Martand (1826), was founded by?

  1. Jugal Kishore Shukla
  2. Ishwar Chandra Gupta
  3. Fardoonjee Marzban
  4. Harishchandra Mukherjee
✔ A. Jugal Kishore Shukla — Udant Martand (1826), the first Hindi newspaper, was founded by Jugal Kishore Shukla.

The oldest surviving Indian newspaper, in Gujarati, is Bombay (1822).

✔ Samachar

The Bombay Times (1838) later became The Times of .

✔ India
📰
Topic 09

Important Newspapers — Nationalist Period (1858–1905)

As nationalism grew, the press became sharper and more political, and the great nationalist dailies were born.

Newspaper / JournalFounder / EditorYearNote
Som PrakashIshwar Chandra Vidyasagar1858Bengali weekly
Rast GoftarDadabhai Naoroji1861Gujarati; social reform
Pioneer—1865English (Allahabad)
Amrita Bazar PatrikaSisir Kumar & Motilal Ghosh1868Switched from Bengali to English overnight to dodge Vernacular Press Act
Madras Mail—1868First evening newspaper
The StatesmanRobert Knight1875Calcutta English daily
The TribuneSardar Dayal Singh Majithia1877Lahore/Chandigarh
The HinduG. Subramania Iyer & others1878Madras English daily
ParidashakBipin Chandra Pal1880—
Kesari (Marathi)Bal Gangadhar Tilak1881Fiery nationalist paper
Maratha (English)Bal Gangadhar Tilak1881English counterpart of *Kesari*
SudharakGopal Ganesh Agarkar1888Social reform, Marathi/English
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The fiery Marathi nationalist newspaper Kesari (1881) was founded by?

  1. Dadabhai Naoroji
  2. Bal Gangadhar Tilak
  3. Bipin Chandra Pal
  4. G. Subramania Iyer
✔ B. Bal Gangadhar Tilak — Kesari (Marathi, 1881) was founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

The Gujarati paper Rast Goftar (1861), devoted to social reform, was founded by?

  1. Dadabhai Naoroji
  2. Robert Knight
  3. Sisir Kumar Ghosh
  4. Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
✔ A. Dadabhai Naoroji — Rast Goftar (1861) was founded by Dadabhai Naoroji.

The Madras English daily The (1878) was founded by G. Subramania Iyer and others.

✔ Hindu

Amrita Bazar Patrika switched from Bengali to English overnight to dodge the Vernacular Press .

✔ Act
📰
Topic 10

Important Newspapers — Freedom-Struggle Period (1906–1947)

In the Gandhian era the press openly served the freedom movement, and several papers became household names.

Newspaper / JournalFounder / EditorYearNote
Bande MataramBipin Chandra Pal & Aurobindo Ghosh1906Extremist nationalist paper
Al-HilalMaulana Abul Kalam Azad1912Urdu; anti-colonial
Bombay ChroniclePherozeshah Mehta1913English
New India / Common WealAnnie Besant1914Home Rule propaganda
The IndependentMotilal Nehru1919Allahabad English daily
Young IndiaMohandas Karamchand Gandhi1919Gandhi's English weekly
The SocialistS.A. Dange1922Early socialist paper
Hindustan TimesK.M. Panikkar (Swaraj Party)1924Major English daily
Free Press JournalS. Sadanand1930English
HarijanMohandas Karamchand Gandhi1933Gandhi's paper for social upliftment
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The English weekly Young India (1919) was run by?

  1. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
  2. Mahatma Gandhi
  3. Motilal Nehru
  4. Annie Besant
✔ B. Mahatma Gandhi — Young India (1919) was Gandhi's English weekly.

The Urdu, anti-colonial paper Al-Hilal (1912) was founded by?

  1. Aurobindo Ghosh
  2. Pherozeshah Mehta
  3. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
  4. S.A. Dange
✔ C. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad — Al-Hilal (1912) was an Urdu anti-colonial paper by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.

Gandhi's paper for social upliftment, launched in 1933, was called .

✔ Harijan

The extremist nationalist paper Bande Mataram (1906) was run by Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo .

✔ Ghosh
📰
Topic 11

Press Acts & Restrictions

The British repeatedly tried to muzzle the press, and these Press Acts are frequently asked.

⭐
Key Point
The Vernacular Press Act, 1878 (by Lord Lytton) gagged the Indian-language press and was nicknamed the "Gagging Act".
  • It was protested heavily and later repealed in 1882 by Lord Ripon.
  • The Press Act of 1835 ("Metcalfe Act") — by Charles Metcalfe, called the "Liberator of the Indian Press" — had earlier freed the press.
  • The Newspaper (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908 and Indian Press Act, 1910 clamped down during the Swadeshi/revolutionary era.
  • To dodge the 1878 Act, Amrita Bazar Patrika turned into an English paper overnight.
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

The Vernacular Press Act of 1878, nicknamed the 'Gagging Act', was introduced by?

  1. Lord Ripon
  2. Lord Lytton
  3. Charles Metcalfe
  4. Lord William Bentinck
✔ B. Lord Lytton — The Vernacular Press Act, 1878, was introduced by Lord Lytton to gag the Indian-language press.

Charles Metcalfe, associated with the Press Act of 1835, is called the?

  1. Father of Indian Renaissance
  2. Liberator of the Indian Press
  3. Heroine of 1942
  4. Father of Modern India
✔ B. Liberator of the Indian Press — Charles Metcalfe (Press Act of 1835) is called the 'Liberator of the Indian Press'.

The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was repealed in 1882 by Lord .

✔ Ripon

To dodge the 1878 Act, Amrita Bazar Patrika turned into an paper overnight.

✔ English
🪔
Topic 12

Flowchart — Major Reform Movements

The three great reform organisations, with their founders and years, are best remembered as a branch flow.

Major Socio-Religious Reform Movements
1
Reform Movements (19th Century)
The Indian Renaissance — against social evils, for rational religion
Brahmo Samaj
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, 1828 — against Sati; monotheism
Arya Samaj
Swami Dayananda Saraswati, 1875 — "Back to the Vedas"
Ramakrishna Mission
Swami Vivekananda, 1897 — Vedanta + service; Chicago 1893
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

In the flow of major reform movements, which was founded in 1828 against Sati?

  1. Arya Samaj
  2. Brahmo Samaj
  3. Ramakrishna Mission
  4. Prarthana Samaj
✔ B. Brahmo Samaj — The Brahmo Samaj (Raja Ram Mohan Roy, 1828) worked against Sati and for monotheism.

In the reform-movements flow, the Ramakrishna Mission (1897) is linked with which leader?

  1. Swami Dayananda Saraswati
  2. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
  3. Swami Vivekananda
  4. Jyotiba Phule
✔ C. Swami Vivekananda — The Ramakrishna Mission (1897) is linked with Swami Vivekananda, who preached Vedanta and service.

In the flow, the Arya Samaj (Swami Dayananda Saraswati, 1875) carried the slogan 'Back to the '.

✔ Vedas

The reform movements of the 19th century are together described as the Indian .

✔ Renaissance
📰
Topic 13

Flowchart — Landmark Social Reforms Over Time

The big social-reform laws fall neatly into a timeline.

Timeline of Landmark Social Reforms
1
Sati Abolished 1829
Lord William Bentinck (Ram Mohan Roy's campaign)
2
Widow Remarriage Act 1856
Championed by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
3
Age of Consent Act 1891
Raised minimum marriage age for girls
4
Sharda Act 1929
Child Marriage Restraint Act
5
Women's Education
Schools for girls; widow upliftment — a continuing reform
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

In the timeline of landmark social reforms, which reform came in 1856?

  1. Sati abolished
  2. Widow Remarriage Act
  3. Age of Consent Act
  4. Sharda Act
✔ B. Widow Remarriage Act — The Widow Remarriage Act, championed by Vidyasagar, came in 1856.

In the reforms timeline, the Sharda Act refers to the?

  1. Age of Consent Act
  2. Child Marriage Restraint Act
  3. Widow Remarriage Act
  4. Vernacular Press Act
✔ B. Child Marriage Restraint Act — The Sharda Act of 1929 was the Child Marriage Restraint Act.

In the timeline, Sati was abolished in 1829 by Lord William .

✔ Bentinck

In the reforms timeline, the Age of Consent Act was passed in the year .

✔ 1891
📰
Topic 14

Flowchart — Growth of the Nationalist Press

The press evolved from colonial gazettes into the backbone of the freedom movement.

Growth of the Indian Press
1
First Newspaper 1780
Hickey's Bengal Gazette (English)
2
Indian-language Press
Sambad Kaumudi (1821), Udant Martand (first Hindi, 1826)
3
Reform Press
Rast Goftar, Som Prakash, Hindu Patriot — for social reform
4
Nationalist Press
Kesari & Maratha (Tilak), The Hindu, Amrita Bazar Patrika
5
Freedom-Struggle Press
Young India & Harijan (Gandhi), Al-Hilal, Bande Mataram
📝 Quick self-test 2 MCQs · 2 fill-ups

In the growth-of-the-press flow, the first newspaper in 1780 was Hickey's?

  1. Bengal Gazette
  2. Udant Martand
  3. Sambad Kaumudi
  4. Rast Goftar
✔ A. Bengal Gazette — The first newspaper (1780) was Hickey's Bengal Gazette, in English.

In the press flow, which papers represent the freedom-struggle press?

  1. Kesari & Maratha
  2. Rast Goftar & Som Prakash
  3. Young India & Harijan
  4. Sambad Kaumudi & Udant Martand
✔ C. Young India & Harijan — The freedom-struggle press included Gandhi's Young India and Harijan, plus Al-Hilal and Bande Mataram.

In the press flow, the first Hindi newspaper (1826) was Udant .

✔ Martand

In the press flow, the nationalist Marathi and English papers Kesari and Maratha were run by .

✔ Tilak
🎯
Recap

Quick Revision

⭐
Key Point
Brahmo Samaj → Raja Ram Mohan Roy, 1828; against Sati (abolished 1829 by Bentinck); "Father of Indian Renaissance".
  • Arya Samaj → Swami Dayananda Saraswati, 1875; slogan "Back to the Vedas"; book *Satyarth Prakash*; D.A.V. schools.
  • Ramakrishna Mission → Swami Vivekananda, 1897; Chicago address 1893; guru = Ramakrishna Paramahansa.
  • Prarthana Samaj → Atmaram Pandurang/M.G. Ranade; Aligarh Movement → Sir Syed Ahmad Khan; Theosophical Society → Annie Besant/Blavatsky.
  • Satyashodhak Samaj → Jyotiba Phule; Self-Respect Movement → Periyar; Young Bengal → Henry Derozio.
  • Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856 → Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar; Sharda Act 1929 against child marriage.
  • First newspaper = Hickey's Bengal Gazette, 1780, by James Augustus Hickey.
  • First Hindi newspaper = Udant Martand (1826); oldest surviving = Bombay Samachar (Gujarati, 1822).
  • Ram Mohan Roy → Sambad Kaumudi & Mirat-ul-Akhbar; Tilak → Kesari & Maratha (1881).
  • Gandhi → Young India (1919) & Harijan (1933); Azad → Al-Hilal; Dadabhai Naoroji → Rast Goftar.
  • Vernacular Press Act, 1878 (Lord Lytton) gagged the Indian press; repealed 1882 by Lord Ripon.
  • Amrita Bazar Patrika turned English overnight to escape the Vernacular Press Act.
  • Metcalfe = "Liberator of the Indian Press" (Press Act of 1835).

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