The Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire was established by Babur, a descendant of two of Asia's most famous conquerors, and it dominated the Indian subcontinent for nearly two centuries.

• Babur was a descendant of Genghis Khan (Changez Khan) on his mother's side and Timur (Taimur) on his father's side.
• The empire reached its peak under Akbar and its architectural climax under Shah Jahan.
• Aurangzeb was the last great Mughal emperor; after 1707 the empire rapidly declined.
• The Mughals introduced the famous Charbagh (four-part) gardens with flowing water and fountains.

• Use of gunpowder and artillery in India was pioneered by Babur.
• The court language of the Mughals was Persian.
• Most Mughal chronicles and memoirs were written in Persian, except Babur's own memoir in Turkish.

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, the King of Farghana (Afghanistan), invaded India and laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire using superior tactics and gunpowder.

• He was the King of Farghana in Afghanistan and traced descent from Timur and Genghis Khan.
• In 1526, he defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat, ending the Delhi Sultanate (Lodi dynasty).
• He used gunpowder and artillery for the first time in India, along with the Tulughma (flanking) war tactic.
• In 1527, he defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar in the Battle of Khanwa.
• In 1528, he defeated Medini Rai in the Battle of Chanderi.
• In 1529, he defeated Mahmud Lodi (Ibrahim's younger brother) in the Battle of Ghaghra.
• Babur introduced the Charbagh gardens with flowing water and fountains.
• He wrote his memoir Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) in Turkish.

Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun succeeded Babur but lost his throne to Sher Shah Suri, only to regain it briefly fifteen years later.

• He made Dinpanah (Delhi) his second capital.
• He was defeated twice by Sher Shah Suri — at the Battle of Chausa (1539) and the Battle of Kanauj (1540) — and lost his empire.
• He re-captured Lahore in 1555 from Sikandar Suri (son of Sher Shah Suri), then retook Delhi and Agra.
• Humayun died in 1556 by falling from the stairs of his library, Sher Mandal.
• His tomb is situated in Delhi.
• His sister Gulbadan Begum wrote the Humayunnama.

Sher Shah Suri was not a Mughal but founded the short-lived Sur dynasty, and his brilliant administration became a model that even Akbar later followed.

• His original name was Farid Khan; he was born at Sasaram (Bihar) in 1486.
• He defeated Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540), took the title emperor of Hindustan, and adopted the title Sher Shah.
• He occupied Delhi in 1540 and built a highly centralised administration.
• He divided the empire into 47 Sarkars (districts), which were further divided into Parganas (sub-districts).
• He built the Grand Trunk Road — calling roads "the arteries of the empire" — connecting Bengal to the north-west.
• He introduced the silver coin Rupiya and the copper Dam.
• His tomb is at Sasaram (Bihar).
• He was succeeded by his son, Islam Shah (Salim Shah).
• His court historian was Abbas Khan Sarwani, who wrote Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi.

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, crowned at the age of 13, became the greatest Mughal emperor through military conquest, religious tolerance, and a brilliant administration.

• He was born in 1542 at Amarkot in the palace of Virasal (Rana Virasal).
• He was crowned at Kalanaur at the age of 13, with his regent Bairam Khan guiding the early years.
• In 1556, he defeated Hemu (Vikramaditya) in the Second Battle of Panipat.
• In 1576, his forces defeated Rana Pratap of Mewar in the Battle of Haldighati.
• He laid the foundation of Fatehpur Sikri (near Agra) and made it his capital.
• He built the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575.
• In 1582, he founded his own religion Din-i-Ilahi — a path of peace, tolerance, and truth.
• He divided the empire into 12 Subas (provinces) in 1580.

• He introduced the Mansabdari system — ranking nobles by Mansab (rank) for civil & military service.
• He introduced the Dahsala (Zabti) land revenue system, implemented by his finance minister Raja Todar Mal.
• He abolished jizya and the pilgrim tax to promote religious tolerance.
• His court historian and biographer was Abul Fazl, who wrote Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari.
• His personal physician was Raja Salivahan; he was succeeded by his son Salim (Jahangir).

Akbar's court was adorned by nine brilliant personalities, the Navaratna, who excelled in scholarship, music, administration, and warfare.

• Scholars & poets: Mullah Do Pyaza, Abul Fazl (historian), Faizi (poet), Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana.
• Music: Tansen — the legendary musician.
• Wit & humour: Birbal.
• Revenue/Finance: Raja Todar Mal — designed the land revenue system.
• Military/Generals: Man Singh and Bhagwan Das.

Nuruddin Muhammad Salim took the title Jahangir on accession and is remembered for the powerful Nur Jahan, his love of painting, and the first English contacts.

• He was born in 1569 at Lahore to mother Mariam-uz-Zamani (Jodha Bai).
• He married Jodha Bai of Marwar and later, in 1611, married Nur Jahan (originally Mehr-un-Nisa), a Persian princess.
• He set up a famous Chain of Justice (Zanjir-i-Adl) of gold bells at Agra for petitioners.
• He was a great patron of Mughal painting, which reached its climax and zenith in his reign.
• He introduced the Du-Aspa and Sih-Aspa ranks in the Mansabdari system.
• Captain William Hawkins stayed at his court at Agra (1609–1611).
• Sir Thomas Roe (1615–1618) was the ambassador of James I of England, who secured trade concessions for the English.
• The Italian traveller Niccolao Manucci / Pietro della Valle visited during his reign.
• He completed Akbar's tomb at Sikandra; Jahangir was buried at Shahdara, near Lahore.
• He wrote his memoir Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian.

Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram, who took the title Shah Jahan, presided over the golden age of Mughal architecture, leaving behind the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort.

• He was born in 1592 at Lahore to mother Jagat Gosain.
• In 1612, he married Arjumand Banu Begum, better known as Mumtaz Mahal.
• Mumtaz Mahal died in 1631 at Burhanpur while giving birth to her 14th child.
• He built the Taj Mahal (1632–1654) at Agra in memory of Mumtaz Mahal.
• He also built the Red Fort, Jama Masjid, and the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) at Agra.
• He shifted the capital to Shahjahanabad (Delhi).
• He introduced the 1/3, 1/4, 1/5 method in the Mansabdari system (sawar rank).
• He appointed Amin (officers of main function) to assess revenue.
• Foreign travellers Bernier (France), Tavernier (France), and Manucci (Italy) visited his court.

Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad, who took the title Alamgir, was the last powerful Mughal; his religious orthodoxy and endless Deccan wars strained the empire.

• He was the third son of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal; he imprisoned his father at Agra Fort and seized the throne.
• He re-imposed the Jizya tax in 1679 and banned music at court.
• He built the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Red Fort, Delhi.
• He never built a tomb for himself; he was a simple, orthodox ruler called Zinda Pir ("the living saint").
• He executed the 9th Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, in 1675.
• He fought long Deccan campaigns — annexing Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687) — and against the Marathas.
• He captured and executed Shambhaji (son of Shivaji) in 1689.
• He spent his final years in the Deccan and died in 1707 at Ahmednagar; his tomb is at Khuldabad, Maharashtra.

A series of decisive battles, fought largely on the plains of Panipat and the deserts of Rajputana, created and secured the Mughal Empire.

This table summarises every major Mughal ruler with their reign and a signature fact — a high-yield revision tool for the exam.

Quick trick to remember the order: *"Babu Hu Phir Akbar — Jahangir Shahjahan Aur Bahadur"* → Babur → Humayun → (Phir = then) → Akbar → Jahangir → Shah Jahan → Aurangzeb → Bahadur Shah I.

The Mughal era produced a rich body of histories and memoirs, mostly in Persian, that are key primary sources of Indian history.

• Babur's Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) was the only major work written in Turkish.

• The Mahabharata was translated into Persian as Razmnama (by Naqib Khan, Badauni, Abul Fazl, Faizi).
• The Ramayana was translated into Persian by Badauni.
• Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vashishtha.

The Mughals ran a centralised administration through a set of specialised departments, headed by officers whose titles are popular exam matches.

• The Mansabdari system (introduced by Akbar) ranked nobles by Mansab for civil and military duty.
• The land revenue system evolved from Sher Shah → Akbar's Dahsala (Todar Mal).

The Mughals were great lovers of nature and laid out beautiful four-part gardens with running water across their empire.

• The gardens were built for pleasure, relaxation, and entertainment.

The crown passed in a clear line from Babur to Aurangzeb, broken only by the brief Sur interregnum of Sher Shah Suri.

The empire was forged in four decisive battles spread across eighty years, from Babur's founding victory to Akbar's last great Rajput campaign.

Akbar's greatness rested on three pillars — a new faith of tolerance, a ranking system for nobles, and a deliberate policy of religious harmony.