The Vedic Age

The word "Veda" itself tells us what these texts are — a body of sacred knowledge.

• The word *Veda* means the sacred knowledge contained in the texts known as Vedic text.
• The Vedas are also called Shruti ("that which is heard") — knowledge revealed to and heard by sages.

Vedic literature is built up in layers, from the core hymns down to the philosophical Upanishads. Two broad categories of texts make up the corpus.

• The Brahmanas (not to be confused with the Brahmin class) are prose texts explaining the meaning of the mantras and the sacrificial rituals.
• The Aranyakas (literally "forest treatises") and the Upanishads (the "sitting down beside" texts) are mainly appendices to the Brahmanas.
• The Mantra category forms the core of the Vedic texts and has four separate collections — the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.

The structure of Vedic literature is best seen as a flow from the oldest core outward.

The Mantra portion is divided into four Vedas, each with its own focus — this is the single most asked table in the chapter.

The Rigveda is the oldest and most important Veda and the source of two of India's most famous lines.

• It is included in the UNESCO list and depicts the life of the Early Vedic Period.
• The Rigveda starts with the line "Agnimele Purohitam" (a hymn to Agni).
• The famous Gayatri Mantra is contained in the Rigveda (Mandala 3); it is believed to have been composed by the sage Vishwamitra and is addressed to Savitri (Sun).
• It contains the knowledge of chemistry and medical science and the prayers of God & Gayatri Mantra.

Each of the remaining three Vedas has signature facts that examiners love.

• It is the origin of Indian Classical Music.
• Sama Vedic hymns are meant to be sung by priests called Udgatri.

• Lays down procedures for the performance of sacrifices (yajnas); has 1975 hymns and 40 adhyayas.
• Contains the knowledge of all sacrificial formula & weapons.
• Found in two recensions — Black and White: the only Veda divided into two parts, Krishna (Black) Yajurveda & Shukla (White) Yajurveda.
• Experts of the Yajurveda were called the Adhvaryu priests.

• Deals with medicines; also called the "Veda of Magical Formulas"; has 730 hymns and 20 khandas.
• A collection of spells and incantations; its knowledge of Ayurveda, charms and spells is known as Black Veda.
• The saying "War begins in the minds of men" is from the Atharvaveda.

The Early Vedic society was simple, equal and free of the rigidities that came later.

• It was patriarchal in nature; monogamy was the usual norm, though chiefs at times practised polygamy.
• The family was part of a larger grouping called the vis (clan); one or more clans made the jana (tribe), which was the largest social unit.
• The Vedic people were fair in complexion; the non-Vedic indigenous people (dasa) were dark and spoke a different language — *dasa* meant a group different from the Rigvedic people.
• Women enjoyed a respectable position — married at a proper age, could choose their husband, and took part in the tribal assemblies called the Sabha and Samiti.

The Rigvedic people worshipped personified forces of nature and built no temples.

• Most gods were male — Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushan, Yama, Soma; only a few goddesses (Ushas, Saraswati, Prithvi) held secondary positions.
• The Early Vedic people did NOT construct temples nor worship any idol/statue.

Rigvedic polity rested not on kingship alone but on the participation of tribal assemblies.

• The chief social unit was the jana; its political leader (chief) was the Rajan.
• The chief's main function was to protect the jana and the cattle from enemies; he was helped by tribal assemblies — the Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha, Gana and Parishad.
• Of these, the Sabha and Samiti were the most important assemblies where all aspects of life were discussed.
• The Purohita assisted and advised the chief; other officials such as the Senani, Kulapa and Gramani also find mention in the Rigveda.

The Vedic Age moved from a simple pastoral life to settled, kingdom-based agriculture.

In the Later Vedic phase the people shifted from a pastoral life to settled agriculture, which became the mainstay of the economy.

• The buffalo was domesticated for agriculture — useful in ploughing the swampy land; the god Indra acquired a new epithet "Lord of the Plough".
• Crop variety increased — apart from barley, people now grew wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet and sugarcane.
• The items of dana and dakshina included cooked rice; Tila (sesame) was used in rituals and increasingly for vegetable oil.
• The use of iron began around 1000 BC; iron tools helped clear the dense rain forests effectively.
• Better knowledge of seasons, manuring and irrigation and the growth of settlements like Hastinapur and Kaushambi marked this period.

Society now became larger, complex and rigidly divided along varna lines.

• The Later Vedic family became a joint family (3–4 generations); the Gotra system appeared — no marriage within the same gotra.
• Monogamous marriages were preferred in this period, even though polygamy was still frequent.
• Some restrictions on women appeared — in one text a woman is said to be the "source of all sorrows", and women were barred from political assemblies.
• Brahmanas and Kshatriyas (the rulers) were dependent on the tributes (gifts/bali) paid by the Vaishyas, who engaged in agriculture, trade and crafts.
• The Shudras, the fourth varna, were at the bottom of the hierarchy and were meant to serve the other three; Brahmans were considered very powerful.

The four stages of life (Ashrama system) came to be settled in this period.

Religion shifted from nature worship to ritual, sacrifice and finally to philosophy.

• The frequency and number of yajnas (sacrifices) rose sharply, strengthening the Brahmanas, who gained great wealth (dana & dakshina) — important yajnas were the Ashvamedha, Vajapeya, Rajasuya and Agnishtoma.
• Mass animal sacrifice hampered the economy, so the Upanishads recommended good conduct, self-sacrifice and welfare.
• The Upanishads teach two principles — Karma and the transmigration of soul (rebirth based on past deeds).
• According to these texts, true happiness lies in attaining Moksha — freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Tribal chiefship now hardened into hereditary kingship backed by elaborate rituals.

• Elaborate coronation rituals such as the Rajasuya and Vajapeya established the chief's authority; the Brahmanas helped the chiefs in this.
• Officers were appointed to help in administration and took over the advisory functions of the assemblies.
• The chiefs belonged to the Kshatriya varna and, in league with the Brahmanas, tried to control the people in the name of dharma.

The Ratnis were the important officials and advisors who ran administration, war, justice and rituals — a high-yield matching table.